Terms


 * 1) **Canadian Shield**-a large plateau that occupies more than two fifths of the land area ofCanada and is drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay.
 * 2) **Incas**-a member of a South American Indian people living in the centralAndes before the Spanish conquest.
 * 3) **Aztecs**-a member of the American Indian people dominant in Mexico before the Spanish conquest of the 16th century.
 * 4) **nation**-states-a state that self-identifies as deriving its political legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a country as a sovereign territorial unit.
 * 5) **Cahokia**-a village in southwestern Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis in Missouri
 * 6) **three-sister farming**-Corn, beans and squash, The Three Sisters, were the principal crops of the Iroquois and other Native American groups in the northeastern United States, at the time Europeans arrived here about 1600
 * 7) **middlemen**-a person who buys goods from producers and sells them to retailers or consumers : we aim to maintain value for money by cutting out the middleman and selling direct.
 * 8) **caravel**-s a small, highly maneuverable [|sailing] [|ship] developed in the 15th century by the [|Portuguese] to explore along the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean.
 * 9) **plantation** - a newly established colony
 * 10) **Columbian Exchange** - a dramatically widespread exchange of animal, plants, culture (including slaves), communicable diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western hemispheres
 * 11) **Treaty of Tordesillas -** 7 June 1494, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands
 * 12) **conquistadores** - the term widely used to refer to the Spanish soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th through the 19th centuries
 * 13) **capitalism**-an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than bythe state
 * 14) **encomienda**-a grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring theright to demand tribute and forced labor from the Indian inhabitants of an area
 * 15) **noche triste-** on June 30, 1520 was an important episode during the Spanish conquest of Mexico where Hernán Cortés' conquest of the Aztec empire was nearly halted in the Mexican capital at Tenochtitlan, and Cortés himself barely escaped by night.
 * 16) **mestizos**-is a traditional term used to denote people of combined Indigenous American and European ancestry.
 * 17) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Battle of Acoma**-The biggest confrontation between the Acoma people and the Spaniards started on December 4, 1598.
 * 18) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Pope`s Rebellion**-he Pueblo Revolt of 1680 or Popé's Rebellion was an uprising of many pueblos of the Pueblo people against Spanish colonization of the Americas in the New Spain province of New Mexico
 * 19) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Black Legend-** is a term coined by [|Julián Juderías] in his 1914 book La leyenda negra y la verdad histórica (The Black Legend and Historical Truth) in reference to the examples of anti-Spanish propaganda and [|Hispanophobia] in the [|Early Modern period]. It is understood as an example of [|historical manipulation] and national [|demonization].


 * Ch. 7 **


 * **Republicanism**: a form of government; defined a just society as one in which all citizens willingly subordi- nated their private, selfish interests to the common good. republicanism was op- posed to hierarchical and authoritarian institutions such as aristocracy and monarchy.


 * **Radical Whigs**: british political commentators.


 * **Mercantilism**: a theory that justified the british control over the colonies.


 * **SugarAct of1764,** the first law ever passed by that body for raising tax revenue in the colonies for the crown. Among various provisions, it increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies.


 * **Quartering Act of 1765**. This measure required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.


 * The **Stamp Act** mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax.


 * **Admiralty courts**, where juries were not allowed.


 * **Stamp Act Congress of 1765**, which brought together in New York City twenty-seven distinguished delegates from nine colonies. After dignified debate the members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and beseeched the king and Parliament to repeal the repugnant legislation.


 * More effective than the congress was the wide- spread adoption of nonimportation agreements against British goods. Woolen garments of homespun became fashionable, and the eating of lamb chops was discouraged so that the wool-bearing sheep would be allowed to mature. **Nonimportation agreements** were in fact a promising stride toward union; they spontaneously united the American people for the first time in common action.


 * Groups of ardent spirits, known as **Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty**, took the law into their own hands. Crying "Liberty, Property, and No Stamps," they enforced the nonimportation agreements against violators often with much tar and feathers.


 * **Townshend Act**, seizing on a dubious distinction between internal and external taxes, made this tax, unlike the stamp tax, an indirect customs duty payable at American ports.


 * **Declaratory Act,** reaffirming Parliament's right "to bind" the colonies "in all cases whatsoever.


 * Acting apparently without orders, but nervous and provoked by the jeering crowd, the troops opened fire and killed or wounded eleven citizens, an event that became known as the **Boston Massacre.**


 * **Committees of correspondence**. Their chief function was to spread the spirit of resistance by exchanging letters and thus keep alive opposition to British policy. One critic referred to the committees as "the foulest, sub- tlest, and most venomous serpent ever issued from the egg of sedition."


 * On **December 16, 1773**, roughly a hundred Bostonians, loosely disguised as Indians, boarded the docked ships, smashed open 342 chests of tea, and dumped their contents into the Atlantic, an action that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party.


 * "**Intolerable Acts**"-as they were called in America-many of the chartered rights of colonial Massachusetts were swept away.


 * **Quebec Act 1774** old boundaries of the province of Québec were now extended southward all the way to the Ohio River.


 * Most memorable of the responses to the "Intolerable Acts" was the summoning of the **First Continental Congress** in 1774. It was to meet in Philadelphia to con- sider ways of redressing colonial grievances.


 * The most significant action of the Congress was the creation of **The Association**. Unlike previous nonimportation agreements, The Association called for a complete boycott of British goods: nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption.


 * In April 1775 the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to nearby **Lexington and Concord**. They were to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and also to bag the "rebel" ringleaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock.


 * At **Valley Forge**, Pennsylvania, shivering American soldiers went without bread for three successive days in the cruel winter of 1777-1778.

CH.8


 * The **Second Continental Congress** met in Philadelphia the next month, on May I0,1775, and this time the full slate of thirteen colonies was represented.


 * In June 1775 the colonists seized a hill, now known as **Bunker Hill** (actually Breed's Hill), from which they menaced the enemy in Boston.


 * Even at this late date, in July L775, the continental Congress adopted the **Olive Branch Petition,** professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities.


 * Because most of these soldiers-for-hire came from the German principality of Hesse, the Americans called all the European mercenaries **Hessians.**


 * Then in 1776 came the publication of **Common Sense**, one of the most influential pamphlets ever written. Its author was the radical Thomas Paine, once an impoverished corset-maker's apprentice, who had come over from Britain a year earlier.


 * After some debate and amendment, the **Declaration of Independence** was formally approved by the Congress on July 4, 1776. It might better have been called "the Explanation of Independence" or, as one contemporary described it, "Mr. Jefferson's advertisement of Mr. Lee's resolution."


 * Lafayette hung a copy on a wall in his home, leaving beside it room for a future **French Declaration of the Rights of Man**, a declaration that was officially born thirteen years later.


 * Colonials loyal to the king **(Loyalists)** fought the American rebels (**Patriots)**, while the rebels also fought the British redcoats.


 * Outgeneraled and outmaneuvered, they were routed at the **Battle of Long Island**, where panic seized the raw recruits.


 * At **Trenton**, on December 26,1776, he surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping off the effects of their Christmas celebration.


 * Unable to advance or retreat, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at **Saratoga** on October 17, 1777, to the American general Horatio Gates.


 * The Continental Congress in the summer of 1776 had accordingly drafted a **Model Treaty** to guide the American commissioners it was about to dispatch to the French court.


 * In 1780 the imperious Catherine the Great of Russia took the lead in organizing the **Armed Neutrality**, which she later sneeringly called the 'Armed Nullity." It lined up almost all the remaining European neutrals in an attitude of passive hostility toward Britain.


 * ln 1784 the pro-British Iroquois were forced to sign the **Treaty of Fort Stanwix**, the first treaty between the United States and an In- dian nation. Under its terms the Indians ceded most of their Iand.


 * More numerous and damaging than ships of the regular American navy were swift **privateers**. These craft were privately owned armed ships-legalized pirates in a sense-specifically authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping.


 * After futile operations in Virginia, he had fallen back to **Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown** to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements.


 * By the **Treaty of Paris of 1783,** the British formally recognized the independence of the United States. In addition, they granted generous boundaries, stretching majestically to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south


 * Ch. 9 **


 * **Society of the Cincinnati** - organization with branches in the United States and France founded in 1783 to preserve the ideals and fellowship of the Revolutionary War officers and to pressure the government to honor pledges it had made to officers who fought for American independence.


 * **Disestablished** - to deprive something of its official status


 * **Virginia Statute For Religious Freedom** - drafted in 1779 by Thomas Jefferson in the city of Fredericksburg, Virginia. In 1786, the Virginia General Assembly enacted the statute into the state's law. The Statute for Religious Freedom is one of only three accomplishments Jefferson instructed be put in his epitaph. It supported the Establishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment, and freedom of conscience.


 * **Civic Virtue** - the notion that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good


 * **Articles of Confederation** - provided for a loose confederation or "firm league of friendship." Thirteen independent states were thus linked together for joint action in dealing with common problems, such as foreign affairs.


 * **Old Northwest** - the public domain recently acquired from the states; northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River, and south of the Great Lakes.


 * **Land Ordinance of 1785** - provided that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. The vast area was to be surveyed before sale and settlement, thus forestalling endless confusion and lawsuits. It was to be divided into townships six miles square, each of which in turn was to be split into thirty-six sections of one square mile each.


 * **Northwest Ordinance** - First, there would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government. Then, when a territory could boast sixty thousand inhabitants, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the thirteen charter members.


 * **Shays's Rebellion** - Impoverished backcountry farmers, many of them Revolutionary War veterans, were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. Led by Captain Daniel Shays, a veteran of the Revolution, these desperate debtors demanded that the state issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspend property takeovers. Hundreds of angry agitators, again seizing their muskets, attempted to enforce their demands.


 * **Virginia Plan** - representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress should be based on popula- tion-an arrangement that would naturally give the larger states an advantage.


 * **New Jersey Plan** - provided for equal representation in a unicameral Congress by states, regardless of size and population, as under the existing Articles of Confederation.


 * **Great Compromise** - an agreement between large and small states reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have under the United States Constitution.


 * **Common Law** - It mostly provided a flexible guide to broad rules of procedure, rather than a fixed set of detailed laws. The original (unamended) Constitution contained just seven articles and ran to about ten printed pages.


 * **Civil Law** - traditions prevailed, constitutions took the form of elaborate legal codes and were often strikingly lengthy.


 * **Three-fifths Compromise** - As a compromise between total representation and none at all, it was de- cided that a slave might count as three-fifths of a person.


 * **Antifederalists** - Americans who opposed the stronger federal government


 * **Federalists** - Americans who favored the stronger federal government


 * **The Federalist** - a series of or essays advocating the ratification of the United States Constitution